Semantics
Objectives
 | Begin to appreciate the nature of lexical and
syntactic meaning |
| Become familiar with some approaches to classifying
meaning |
| Analyze the complex relationship between signs and
signifiers |
| Use information about syntax, morphology, language
change, and the English lexicon to analyze political speech |
Class Activities
Group Exercise: What Words Mean
Use several different methods to try to determine the
meaning of the following words. First, use semantic features. Next, write a
definition with a hypernym and distinctive attributes. Finally, come up with
a list of synonyms. Which method seems most effective? What drawbacks does
each have? Referring to Crystal's discussion of synonyms, categorize your
list of synonyms according to levels of formality, collocation, and
connotation.
| overalls |
| window |
| courage |
| love |
| medicine |
| eat |
| marionette |
| hiccup |
| improve |
| healthy |
| abstract |
| apocryphal |
Individual Exercise: Semantic Analysis
Each of the following sentences or scenarios, many of
which I have drawn from real life, demonstrates at least one semantic
phenomenon covered in the reading for this week. Use what you have learned
about proper nouns, polysemous nouns, deixis, and other concepts to analyze
the item:
| A contemporary gospel song contains the line "Our God
is an awesome God." |
| The lyrics to a remarkable number of country songs
contain lines like the following: "I've got friends in low places." What
semantic concept are the composers of these songs using? |
| A student tells a career counselor: "I want to find a
job in publishing, but they never hire anyone without experience."
|
| Speaking to a student in a mentoring program, a
fund-raiser my wife knew identified herself as an "opportunist."
|
| While working as a copy editor, I once let my news
editor know that I was uncomfortable with a story that identified someone
as an "alleged murderer." Why did I object to this phrase? Would you
object? Why or why not? |
| As a teenager, I worked at Chick-fil-A, where we had
three sizes of soft drinks: small, medium, and large. Our "large,"
however, was enormous--about 32 ounces. Many customers used to tell me: "I
want a large, but not that jumbo thing." |
| In Act 4, Scene 3 of William Shakespeare's play
Macbeth, Macduff learns that his wife and children have been murdered,
presumably by Macbeth. As Macduff begins to unravel, Malcolm says: "Be
comforted. / Let's make us med'cines of our great revenge / To cure this
deadly grief." Macduff replies: "He has no children" (line 216).
|
| "We, therefore, the Representatives of the United
States of America, in General Congress, Assembled, appealing to the
Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the
Name, and by Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly
publish and declare, That these United Colonies are, and of right ought to
be Free and Independent States; that they are Absolved from all Allegiance
to the British Crown, and that all political connection between them and
the State of Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved; and that as
Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy War, conclude
Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to do all other Acts
and Things which Independent States may of right do." |
| "By the President of the United States of America: A
Proclamation. Whereas on the 22d day of September, A.D. 1862, a
proclamation was issued by the President of the United States, containing,
among other things, the following to wit: 'That on the 1st day of January,
A.D. 1863, all persons held as slaves within any State or designated part
of a State the people whereof shall then be in rebellion against the
United States shall be then, thenceforward, and forever free . . . .'"
|
| Apparently irked by a competitor's new one-day
treatment for a particular infection, a company began running a commercial
that points out that the infection cannot be cured in a single day.
|
| In his campaign advertisements, an incumbent member of
Congress derides the folly of the politicians in "Washington." |
Group Exercise: Words on Semantics
Rewrite each of the following quotations using semantic
terminology:
| How many a dispute could have been deflated into a
single paragraph if the disputants had dared to define their terms.
Aristotle |
| Vague and insignificant forms of speech, and abuse of
language, have so long passed for mysteries of science; and hard or
misapplied words, with little or no meaning, have, by prescription, such a
right to be mistaken for deep learning and height of speculation; that it
will not be easy to persuade either those who speak or those who hear
them, that they are but the covers of ignorance, and hindrance of true
knowledge. John Locke |
| They believed their words. Everybody shows a
respectable deference to certain sounds that he and his fellows can make.
But about feelings people really know nothing. We talk with indignation or
enthusiasm; we talk about oppression, cruelty, crime, devotion,
self-sacrifice, virtue, and we know nothing real beyond the words.
Joseph Conrad
|
Group Exercise: The Meaning of Truth
| While campaigning for the presidency in 1988,
Vice-President George Bush promised that he would not approve new taxes,
famously declaring, "Read my lips: no new taxes." After winning the
election, Bush eventually did sign a tax increase that Congress had
passed. Did Bush lie? Defend your answer by referring to what you have
learned about semantics. |
| Testifying in the sexual harrassment lawsuit filed by
Paula Jones, President Bill Clinton said that he did not have "sexual
relations" with White House intern Monica Lewinsky. Later, Clinton
admitted that he had an "inappropriate relationship" with Lewinsky. Did
Clinton lie? Defend your answer by referring to what you have learned
about semantics. |
Discussion: "Politics and the English Language"
| Was George Orwell, author of "Politics and the English
Language," a descriptive or prescriptive grammarian? Defend your answer.
|
| Compare Orwell's argument with those of similar
language analysts, such as Jonathan Swift, William Struck and E.B. White,
and William Safire. In particular, consider the reasons these analysts
oppose what they consider sloppy usage. |
| In what way do Orwell's examples illustrate the
phenomenon that John Algeo and Thomas Pyles describe in the section called
"The Vogue for Words of Learned Origin" on pages 252-254 of The Origins
and Development of the English Language? |
| In perhaps the most famous passage of this essay,
Orwell writes: "If thought can corrupt language, then language and corrupt
thought." What does he mean? Do you agree? Defend your answer. |
| Using what you know about language change, semantics,
and usage, support or contest Orwell's argument that we can retard what he
considers the deterioration of the language. |
| This essay appeared about 50 years ago. Is it still
relevant? If so, cite recent examples. |
| If you have read Orwell's novel 1984, explain
how it illustrates some of the ideas he expresses in "Politics and the
English Language." |
Journal 3: Analysis of Political Language
Using what you have learned about phonology, morphology,
syntax, and semantics, analyze a sample of political or bureaucratic speech.
Here are some things you may want to consider:
| Phonology: Has the
speaker or writer tried to emphasize concepts or appeal to the ear by
using phonological phenomena such as alliteration, rhyme, or even regular
stress patterns? If you have the advantage of hearing the speech, you may
want to analyze other features, such as assimilation, register, and
intonation. |
| Morphology and Lexicon:
What types of words does the speaker or writer use? Do you see any leaning
toward loan or native words, old or recently coined words, plain or
elevated diction? What do these preferences suggest about the author's
background or intentions? |
| Syntax: How complex is
the syntax? Identify some transformations and comment on how these
transformations affect the meaning of the deep structure. For example,
does the author use the passive voice? What effect might this
transformation have on the audience? |
| Semantics: How direct is
the speaker or writer? Note examples of euphemism and other forms of
obfuscation. |
Try to refer to terms and concepts we have studied, as
well as any books--the OED and books by Crystal and Orwell, for
example--that can illuminate your analysis. A number of speeches are
available on the World Wide Web. For a recent presidential speech, for
example, visit the White House's site.
For older speeches and documents, visit the
University of Virginia Library
electronic text center or a similar site. |
Assignments
| An Introduction to Language,
Chapter 5 |
| The Origins and Development of the English Language,
Chapter 10 |
| George Orwell's essay "The Politics of the English
Language" |
| Journal 3 |
Terms
| semantics |
| semantic properties |
| homonym |
| pun |
| polysemous |
| synonym |
| antonym |
| hyponym |
| hypernym |
| metonym |
| proper name |
| sense |
| reference |
| thematic roles |
| pronoun |
| anomaly |
| metaphor |
| idiom |
| pragmatics |
| linguistic context |
| situational context |
| discourse |
| maxims of conversation |
| speech act |
| performative sentence |
| deixis |
| collocations |
| etymology |
| generalization |
| specialization |
| transfer of meaning |
| abstract |
| concrete |
| pejoration |
| amelioration |
| denotation |
| connotation |
| George Orwell |
| sign |
| signifier |
Bibliography
| George Orwell, 1984 |
| William Harmon, A Handbook to Literature
|
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